Category: Language Notes

The word “some” indicates a quantity of something, but it doesn’t strongly signal any particular quantity or any particular feeling that the actual quantity is important. There is very little difference, with respect to quantity, between “There are people in the dining room” and “There are some people in the dining room.”  Saying “There are some people” is just saying the opposite of “there are no people.”  The sense of quantity with “no” (or “not any”) is simply negative; the sense of quantity with “some” is simply positive.

When we use words like “a lot” or “a few,” we are giving some indication as to the quantity of something.  We understand that the quantity is large when we say “a lot” and that it is fairly small when we say “a few.”  We can use these expressions to answer questions with “How many?” or “How much?” But because “some” doesn’t give much indication of the actual number or amount of what it is referring to, it is not often used in answering such questions. If it is used in such situations, it sounds as if the speaker can’t really decide how to describe the quantity.  Still, when we need to interpret “some” as a particular quantity, we assume that it is somewhere between a little bit and a lot.  If someone asks us to put some flour in a bowl, we’d probably put in what we thought would be a moderate amount rather than what seems like a little or a lot.

Examples:

Be careful; there’s some water on the floor. 
We have some milk, but we don’t have any orange juice.
There are some movies that just don’t interest me at all. [A proportion of movies just don’t interest me.]
How many people came?  Well, some, but not many.
How many people came?  Well, some, but only a few.

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If we really think about it, quantity expressions, other than actual numbers and words like “none,” do not specify exact amounts, and some vary widely in the actual amounts they can refer to.  The choice of any one of them—“several,” “a lot,” “a bit,” “a few,” “many”– depends on how the speaker feels about the amount being referred to, and whether that amount feels small or large or somewhere in between.

The most specific of the quantity words are probably “a few” and “several”—and, of course, “a couple,” which usually means two, but doesn’t feel very precise.  “A few” usually means two or three, or maybe four.  But it could mean six or eight if one thought there might be sixty. (“A few” is always positive, though.  It may be a small amount, but it is still significant.)  Likewise, “several” means more than two but not so many as to confidently say “many.”  Even though “several” is defined as meaning more than two, and therefore possibly meaning “three,” it is generally felt to signify a quantity larger than “a few.”  Therefore, “several” usually suggests a quantity of more than four, but again, not so many as to make a person say “many.”

Other quantity expressions are even more vague about numbers and amounts than “a few” and “several.”  The amounts they refer to are highly relative.  “A good number of fish,” for example, could mean four or five if that’s the number of fish an amateur caught in an afternoon, but the phrase could mean several thousand if one is referring to the current number of fish in a lake, and especially if that number is surprising.  These expressions with “good“—“a good number,” “a good deal”—refer to quantities that seem large to the speaker but still seem less than what the speaker would feel comfortable describing as “many,” “a lot,” “a great number” or “a great deal.”

“Many” is a highly relative term (as is “a lot” and “much”).  It always refers to a number higher than two, but, other than that, it could mean any number from three to infinity, depending on what it is referring to and how the speaker feels about the number.  One could say “many gray hairs” if one found three on one’s head and was very surprised, or annoyed, or just exaggerating.  Or one could say “many stars” if one were actually referring to millions or billions.   The only important thing is that the number feels like a very large one to the speaker.

“Some” is the most vague and relative quantity expression of all.   In fact, we don’t often use it to answer a question about the specific quantity of something.  If we do use it in such cases,  we may give the impression that we cannot decide how to describe the actual amount.  As a quantity word, “some” is most often used as the positive complement of “any” or “no”  (e.g., “Is there any milk left?” –Yes, there’s some in the fridge.”  “I saw some beautiful birds yesterday, but I saw no birds at all this morning.” “I don’t have any peaches, but I’ve got some apples.)  Whereas  “no” and “any” are used to negate or question the existence of a quantity of something, “some” is used to state or affirm the existence of a quantity of something.  But, again, the actual amount of this thing is pretty much unimportant, except that it’s more than one, if the item is countable. 

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Both “create” and “produce” have the meaning of making a new thing or bringing a new thing into the world.  One might expect the words to be close synonyms, yet, surprisingly, they do not generally overlap in usage.  The first important difference is that creating tends to require imagination, or something like a divine or magical spark, whereas producing tends to come about through a mechanical process or through natural processes that are part of the way plants and animals function biologically:  Chickens produce eggs; they don’t create them.  You produce a loud noise with your tuba; you don’t, in general, create one.  You can, however, create a new and unique sound with your tuba if you’ve been working on it and exploring different possibilities.

The second difference is that creation tends to focus on a thing being made for the first time ever, while production often suggests making a new thing in just the same way as similar things have been made before, or it suggests multiple things being made at the same time and in the same way as each other.  Consequently, “create” can sometimes have an inspired, even poetic, feeling to it whereas “produce” often has a more prosaic, mechanical feeling to it:  The task of an artist is to create.  The task of a manufacturer is to produce. 

“Create” also tends to be used more often in combination with abstract words than “produce.”  With abstract ideas, “create” is a slightly more formal or academic way of saying “make” or “cause,” as when we say “create a dilemma,” “create a disturbance,” “create an illusion,” “create a nurturing environment,” “create a relaxing atmosphere.”  “Produce” can be used instead of “create” in combination with abstract words, but “create” tends to be the more frequent choice.

One final, and perhaps most important, difference between these words is that “produce” is rather narrowly focused on the sending out of something into the world, the delivery of a thing as a finished product.  It is not very much concerned with the process of making or putting something together, even if a great deal of effort—even creativity– actually goes into a thing’s production.  “Create” is more focused on the piece-by-piece crafting of something, especially when that process requires imagination or a unique set of actions, decisions, and materials.  Looking at artists and manufacturers again, it should be noted that a very fast-working artist can produce more works of art than a slow-working one.  In this example, “produce” is used because the focus is just on the putting out of finished products.  On the other hand, a manufacturer can create a design for a new product.  In this example, “create” is used to focus on the process of putting together a new and unique thing and to suggest the use of thought and imagination going into that process.

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aesthetic |es the tik|
vs.
 ascetic | ə se tik|

These words have similar pronunciations and spellings, but quite different meanings.  The word “aesthetic” –with the “th” sound in the middle–has to do with beauty, so if you’re talking about beauty or the arts, “aesthetic” is probably the word you’d want to use rather than “ascetic.”  “Ascetic” refers to self-denial, self-discipline, and austerity.  It’s a word often used when referring to the monastic life or something similar to it.

aesthetic:  of or relating to beauty or to the study of beauty and its forms.
Her aesthetic sensibility was offended by the gaudy decor of the banquet hall.
Each culture has its own aesthetic traditions.

ascetic:  rigorously simple and disciplined; austere; self-denying.
The nuns lead an ascetic life in the convent.
It was necessary to adopt an ascetic way of life during the war.
Their new stepfather imposed an ascetic regimen on the family.

It’s also easy to confuse “aesthetic” or “ascetic” with “acetic,” which refers to acid or vinegar.  Besides the difference in meaning, the pronunciation of “acetic” has the “e” vowel sounding like the “e” in “bee,” whereas the “e” sound in the other two is like the “e” in “pet.”

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“Imply” and “infer” have a relationship that is similar to the one between “talk” and “listen.”  “Imply” corresponds more closely to the talking side of the relationship, and “infer” corresponds more closely to the listening side. A talker can imply; a listener can infer.

When you imply something, there is a meaning in what you are saying or projecting that may be understood by someone else but is not being communicated in a direct manner by you.  If you say “The floor is wet,” you may be implying that your listener shouldn’t walk across it.  If you say “I know where you went last night,” your tone may be implying that your listener was up to some mischief or even immoral activity.

Sometimes, of course, we argue about what we said versus what we implied.  We say, “I didn’t say that!” and the other person says, “Yeah, but you implied it!”  It is possible for us to say something that can be interpreted in a way that we do not intend.  What’s really happening in many of these contentious cases, though, is that the listener is inferring a meaning that we did not intend to imply!

When you infer something, you are on the receiving side of the communication.  Something is expressed to you, and you are finding inexplicit or hinted at meaning in it, or you believe you’ve uncovered some hidden meaning even if, in fact, it isn’t intended by the speaker.

It should be said that both implication and inference are absolutely essential to communication.  It would be uncomfortable, difficult, or impossible to actually say everything that we mean when we say something.  Instead, we trust in our listener’s ability to understand what we’re implying or to infer information from what we say.   For example, if we say “My flight leaves at seven.  I guess I’ll set my clock for 4:00 a.m.,” we intend our listener to understand the connection between these two statements, and we don’t even question his or her ability to do so.  What we are not saying but that we trust our listener to infer from the above sentences, among other things, is that the flight leaves at seven in the morning, that the clock is an alarm clock, and that we need to wake up at the set time in order to have time to get to the airport for our flight.

How would we function if we had to actually say everything we mean?!

Finally, although the discussion here has focused on verbal communication, it should also be noted that both “imply” and “infer” can be used in other contexts.  Either can be used in reference to other ways that meaning can be signaled indirectly or can be deduced, as the following examples will show.

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“Damp” and “moist” are words with similar meaning.  They both describe things that contain a small amount of moisture—not so much moisture as to say something is “wet,” but nonetheless an amount that is tangible, an amount that we can physically feel. 

Although the two words are close in meaning, they are not exactly the same and tend to be used quite differently.  First of all, “damp” often describes a condition that is unpleasant or unwanted (“damp bedsheets,” “a damp basement.” “a damp hotel room”), whereas “moist” more often describes a pleasant or desired condition (“moist skin,” “moist cake,” “moist soil”).  This is not to say that there are no exceptions to these tendencies, but, in general, when dryness in a thing is something we want, then it is not good when it’s damp (“a damp carpet”).  When dryness in a thing is not what we want, then it’s good when it’s moist (“a moist cupcake”).

It’s also important to note that a “moist” thing is generally a little more saturated with liquid than something that is just “damp.”   Wiping something with a “moist” cloth would leave tiny droplets of water on it, whereas a “damp” cloth would leave no visible droplets.  Something that is “damp” is not completely dry; something that is “moist” is nearly, but not completely, wet.  

Another interesting difference is that we rarely, if ever, use “damp” to describe something we can eat.  You can say “moist cookies,” but you can’t say “damp cookies.”  Well, you can, but it’s a little hard to imagine why you would!  This is because we generally feel dampness of an object by touching the outside of it, and we’re generally not interested in how the outside of a cookie feels.  With cookies, we’re mostly interested in what’s inside.  Moreover, dampness is something we sense with the outside of our bodies.  It’s not something we sense with the inside of our mouths!

One last tendency to mention is that “damp” tends to be linked with coldness in our minds, whereas “moist” tends to be linked with warmth or a neutral temperature.  “Moist climate,” for example, would be linked with places that are warm and rainy, as in “the moist climate of the tropics.”  “Damp weather” is associated with places that get abundant rain along with cool temperatures. “Damp weather,” like many other things that are called “damp,” is often considered uncomfortable and something justifiable to complain about.  “Moist weather,” on the other hand, does not seem to be as common a cause for complaint—either that or it is not experienced as frequently by the majority of English speakers.  In fact, the combination tends to be used mainly in weather forecasting rather than in ordinary conversation.  Interestingly, when we complain about warm weather that has some degree of moisture, it is “humid weather” that gets the gripes.

The following are some of the most common word combinations for “moist” and “damp”:

All three of these conjunctive adverbs are used to indicate that you have something more to say than what you’ve just said.  They are a little like conversational traffic signs that say “Wait!  I’m not done yet!  I’ve got something more to say on this subject.”  Often, the three expressions are interchangeable.

JUST ADDING INFORMATION

 “In addition” might be said to be the most neutral and least assertive of the three expressions.  It’s used mainly just to add one piece of information on a subject to another piece of information on the same subject.  “Furthermore” does the same thing, but it is more emphatic in tone.  It sends out a little bit stronger signal to the listener or reader that says:  “Stay with me!  There is more that you need to know!”    

• The new state park will open next June with numerous hiking trails to explore.  In addition, a boat marina is being constructed at the north end of the lake.
• All residents are advised to evacuate the building.  Furthermore, they are advised not to return to their homes until city officials say it is safe to do so.
• India is one of the most populous countries of the world with three official languages and numerous others spoken.  Most of the population are adherents of Hinduism, though there is a large Muslim minority.  Furthermore, a small but significant percentage of Indians are Christians and Sikhs.

BEING PERSUASIVE

All three adverbs can be used when trying to persuade the reader or listener of something, to make one’s current argument stronger by adding additional supports.  However, “furthermore” and  “moreover” have a more forceful or authoritative tone than “in addition” and may therefore be preferred for bolstering one’s argument.  In the example below, the argument concerns the need to exercise more.  The second sentence gives two supporting statements for this argument, and the sentence beginning with “furthermore” gives yet another one.

• It’s clear that we all need to exercise more:  Exercise improves one’s strength and can reduce one’s risk of chronic disease.  Furthermore, new evidence is suggesting that it is important for one’s mental fitness as well.

The word “moreover” is the most assertive in tone of the three adverbs and may suggest that what follows carries more weight than what the speaker has just said before.  The information in the statement may be something that the speaker feels strongly about or is something that will likely surprise the listener or make a strong impact.  Additionally, the statement introduced by “moreover” tends to contain a different kind of information from what has come before.  “Furthermore,” on the other hand, simply signals that one is about to say something that will give additional support for one’s argument.  It may be information along the same lines or it may be information of a different type.

• I don’t agree that she’s overrated as a singer.  Moreover, I think you’re just jealous of her talent!
• I’m not surprised they’re firing him.  His work is substandard, and his attitude is poor; moreover, he’s always late to meetings.
• There was no way they could have won the battle.  They were outnumbered by thousands of enemy troops.  They were exhausted and demoralized from earlier fighting.  Furthermore, they were insufficiently armed.

Because of their assertive or authoritative nature, the adverbs “moreover” and “furthermore” tend to be used more often in heated arguments, fiery speeches, and in scolding than the more neutral expression “in addition.”  One can easily imagine hearing “moreover” and “furthermore” during a hard-hitting debate or, say, when a school principal or instructor scolds a group of students for unacceptable behavior.

• Your deplorable behavior toward this boy will be punished, and, furthermore, you will have to have to apologize both to the boy and his parents.

• I will accept no more late papers in this class.  Moreover, students who are not in their seats when class begins will be marked absent.

In speaking, both “moreover” and “furthermore” tend to be pronounced with strong emphasis.  The words are pronounced slightly louder and with higher pitch (on their stressed syllable) than the words coming before or after them.  The expression “in addition” may or may not be pronounced with strong emphasis.

The three expressions being discussed here can all be used in an extension of the same discussion or argument.  It simply depends on how many additional pieces of information or supports one wants to provide in making one’s point or covering a small topic.  In general, however, whenever “furthermore” is used in conjunction with either or both of the others, it tends to introduce the final element.  In fact, “furthermore,” whenever it is used, tends to bring with it the final piece of information on a subject or final point of an argument.  One can image a lengthy argument that goes like this:

• Blah, blah, blah.  Blah, blah, blah….  Moreover, blah, blah, blah…  And, furthermore, blah, blah, blah.

Now that’s a compelling argument!

Finally, all three expressions share a certain formality of tone. “In addition” and “furthermore,” in particular, have a rather academic or official sound to them.  While all three certainly can be used in informal conversation, they are more often used in relatively formal writing and speaking.  In informal speaking, the expression “not only that, but…” serves the same function as “moreover,” and a strongly stressed “also” at the beginning of one’s sentence can serve the function of any of the three.  The expression “plus” is also gaining ground as an even more informal and emphatic alternative to “also.”

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